More and more companies, government agencies, educational institutions and philanthropic organisations are today in the grip of a new phenomenon: "metric fixation'. The key components of metric fixation are the belief that it is possible - and desirable to replace professional judgment (acquired through personal experience and talent) with numerical indicators of comparative performance based upon standardised data (metrics), and that the best way to motivate people within these organisations is by attaching rewards and penalties to their measured performance.
The rewards can be monetary, in the form of pay for performance, say, or reputational, in the form of college rankings, hospital ratings, surgical report cards and so on. But the most dramatic negative effect of metric fixation is its propensity to incentivise gaming: that is, encouraging professionals to maximise the metrics in ways that are at odds with the larger purpose of the organisation. If the rate of major crimes in a district becomes the metric according to which police officers are promoted, then some officers will respond by simply not recording crimes or downgrading them from major offences to misdemeanours. Or take the case of surgeons. When the metrics of success and failure are made public -affecting their reputation and income -some surgeons will improve their metric scores by refusing to operate on patients with more complex problems, whose surgical outcomes are more likely to be negative. Who suffers? The patients who don't get operated upon.
When reward is tied to measured performance, metric fixation invites just this sort of gaming But metric fixation also leads to a variety of more subtle unintended negative consequences. These include goal displacement, which comes in many varieties: when performance is judged by a few measures, and the stakes are high (keeping one's job, getting a pay rise or raising the stock price at the time that stock options are vested), people focus on satistying those measures often at the expense of other, more important organisational goals that are not measured. The best-known example is "teaching to the test', a widespread phenomenon that has distorted primary and secondary education in the United States since the adoption of the No Child Left Behind Act of $2001$.
Short-termism is another negative. Measured performance encourages what the $\text{US}$ sociologist Robert K Merton in $1936$ called the imperious immediacy of interests.. where the actor's paramount concern with the foreseen immediate consequences excludes consideration of further or other consequences". In short, advancing short-term goals at the expense of long-range considerations. This problem is endemic to publicly traded corporations that sacrifice long-term research and development, and the development of their staff, to the perceived imperatives of the quarterly report.
To the debit side of the ledger must also be added the transactional costs of metrics: the expenditure of employee time by those tasked with compiling and processing the metrics in the first place-not to mention the time required to actually read them$\dots$
Which of the following is $\text{NOT}$ a consequence of the metric fixation phenomenon mentioned in the passage?
- Improving cooperation among employees leading to increased organisational effectiveness in the long run
- Short-term orientation induced by frequent measurement of performance
- Finding a way to show better results without actually improving performance
- Deviating from organisationally important objectives to measurable yet less important objectives